How Finning Styles Shape Lactate In Freediving
Freedivers are cast as figures of calm transcendence, slipping into the deep as if human physiology is suspended along with breath. But this vision is only half the truth. Beneath the silence is a storm, and it happens inside the muscles. Every kick, every undulation, every stroke sets off a metabolic chain reaction. Oxygen demand rises, but delivery is restricted. Energy production shifts, lactate builds, and fatigue follows. It is here, in this quiet battle with physiology, that the real story of freediving unfolds. Lactate is not simply waste. It is the chemical currency of compromise. When muscles run short on oxygen, they convert pyruvate into lactate to keep contracting, to keep moving even under duress. The accumulation of lactate signals a reliance on anaerobic metabolism, and its clearance reflects how quickly a body returns to readiness. In freediving, the dive reflex alters the playing field entirely. Blood is redirected toward the brain and heart, while limbs, the very engines of propulsion, are left in partial deficit. What results is a range of fatigue profiles that depend on how a diver moves through the water. The choice of finning style, monofin, bifins, or no-fins, is not just about hydrodynamics or preference. It is about how muscles are stressed, how lactate accumulates, and how recovery is managed. The Physiology of Finning Styles Different ways of moving create different patterns of fatigue. The monofin is often hailed as the ultimate freediving tool, capable of translating human effort into smooth, dolphin-like propulsion. Its undulating motion recruits large muscle groups, the core, glutes, hamstrings, and spinal erectors, spreading the effort across the body. Efficiency is high, drag is reduced, and distance per stroke is unmatched. Yet this same engagement of broad muscle groups means lactate accumulation can be significant. When the body is deprived of oxygen during apnea, large active muscles become strong producers of lactate. The diver experiences both the grace of glide and the heaviness of burning legs when surfacing. Bifins offer a different story. The movement is simpler, the equipment more familiar. Two fins, flutter kicking, legs doing most of the work. It may appear more accessible, but research shows bifin diving can generate the fastest muscle desaturation rates and some of the highest lactate readings. The reason lies in frequency and localization. With each kick, the quadriceps and calves work relentlessly, often without the relief of glide phases. Blood flow is restricted by the dive reflex, oxygen debt builds, and anaerobic metabolism takes over. Divers report the distinct sensation of leg heaviness earlier and more acutely than with monofin. Efficiency is sacrificed for familiarity, and the biochemical cost is steep. No-fins is the purist’s choice, the stripped-down discipline that demands coordination of arms and legs without mechanical aid. It is, by design, inefficient. Every stroke and kick moves the diver forward, but at a greater energy cost per meter. Studies confirm that constant weight no-fins and dynamic no-fins produce some of the highest post-dive lactate levels recorded, often exceeding 7 mmol/L. For context, static apnea barely lifts lactate above 1 mmol/L. In no-fins, the diver feels the effort not just in the legs but across the whole body. Arms, shoulders, and trunk all contribute, each drawing from limited oxygen stores. It is perhaps the purest expression of the freediver’s paradox: the body is working hard, yet the environment demands calm. What these styles reveal is not just differences in efficiency but differences in physiology. Monofin spreads the load and rewards those with whole-body coordination. Bifins concentrate stress locally and punish inefficiency quickly. No-fins tests endurance across the body, demanding resilience where hydrodynamics offer little help. Each style produces a unique lactate signature, a biochemical fingerprint of effort and adaptation. What the Research Tells Us Sports science has increasingly turned its gaze toward freediving, and the findings are striking. In a landmark study on competitive freedivers and synchronized swimmers, constant weight no-fins recorded the highest net lactate accumulation, averaging 6.3 mmol/L, while constant weight with monofin reached 5.9 mmol/L. Synchronized swimming, with its combination of artistic movement and apnea, came close at 5.0 mmol/L. Static apnea, by contrast, was almost flat, averaging just 0.7 mmol/L. These numbers highlight how movement under apnea changes the metabolic landscape entirely. Another study comparing monofin swimming under normal breathing and under breath-hold painted a similar picture. While lactate under normal breathing remained modest—around 2.2 mmol/L in elite divers—the same distance performed under apnea saw lactate surge to over 6 mmol/L in intermediates and 4 mmol/L in elites. The difference between groups is telling. Elite freedivers, through years of adaptation, generate less lactate under the same conditions. Whether through improved efficiency, better buffering of acidosis, or enhanced clearance, training changes the profile of fatigue. Near-infrared spectroscopy has added another layer of insight. By measuring oxygen saturation and hemoglobin levels in muscles during dives, researchers have tracked in real time how quickly muscles desaturate and how lactate correlates with that drop. Bifin diving showed the fastest rate of desaturation at almost one percent per second, while monofin and no-fins followed closely. The resulting lactate measurements mirrored this pattern, with bifin and no-fins pushing above 7 mmol/L, monofin around 6 mmol/L, and static remaining near baseline. These findings confirm what divers feel: the burn is not imagined, it is measurable. Such data does more than validate experience. It informs training, strategy, and safety. By knowing which styles are most demanding metabolically, divers can plan recovery intervals, adjust session structures, and build conditioning targeted to their chosen discipline. It also underscores why freediving should not be portrayed as effortless. The numbers tell a story of muscle stress, of biochemical compromise, of resilience in the face of oxygen debt. That is as much a part of the sport as the silence of the deep. Measuring and Managing Lactate Understanding lactate is one thing; measuring and managing it is another. In the laboratory, blood samples from the fingertip or earlobe provide precise readings, taken before dives, immediately after, and at intervals during recovery. Portable analyzers now make this feasible even poolside, allowing divers and coaches to track lactate clearance over time. A typical protocol might chart lactate every minute for five minutes post-dive, then every two minutes up to fifteen minutes. The shape of the clearance curve reveals how quickly a diver is ready for the next attempt. Technologies like near-infrared spectroscopy add another dimension. By monitoring muscle oxygenation continuously, NIRS allows divers to see when muscles hit their lowest saturation point, when blood volume peaks, and how quickly recovery begins. These measures correlate strongly with lactate accumulation and clearance, providing a non-invasive tool to complement blood sampling. For freedivers, this is not just academic. It is a way to train smarter, to avoid stacking fatigue, and to personalize recovery strategies. Management extends beyond measurement. Active recovery has long been shown to accelerate lactate clearance compared to passive rest. Light swimming, gentle finning, or even walking in shallow water can help circulation and reduce recovery times. Nutrition plays a role too. Carbohydrates support the Cori cycle, where lactate is recycled back into glucose by the liver. Hydration ensures blood flow remains efficient. Heat aids perfusion, while cold may prolong clearance by sustaining vasoconstriction. Freedivers who treat recovery as seriously as descent find themselves better prepared, safer, and more consistent. Training adaptation is the ultimate tool. Over time, repeated exposure to apnea with effort builds buffering capacity against acidosis, enhances mitochondrial density, and improves lactate clearance rates. Elite divers demonstrate this clearly, showing lower lactate accumulation for equal work. What feels like supernatural ability is in fact years of physiological conditioning, honed by data and discipline. Why This Story Matters Mainstream depictions of freediving rarely capture this side of the sport. Advertisements highlight grace. Documentaries focus on transcendence. Feature films simplify the challenge into willpower or romance. What is missing is the invisible battle: the chemical storm in the muscles, the sensation of legs turning heavy with lactate, the precise timing of recovery before another attempt. To understand freediving only as serenity is to misunderstand it. This is not about stripping the magic away. On the contrary, it deepens it. The ability to turn biochemical struggle into fluid movement is extraordinary. To glide while the body burns, to remain composed while muscles drown in lactate, is a feat of adaptation and resilience. It is the union of physiology and psychology, of data and art. Freediving deserves to be portrayed in its full truth. The silence is real, but so is the fatigue. The calm is genuine, but it is earned against the background noise of muscle chemistry. When a diver surfaces after a long dynamic or a deep constant weight dive, the relief on their face is not just about making it back. It is the body’s celebration of clearance beginning, of lactate being carried away, of balance restored. That moment is as much part of freediving’s story as the descent itself. It is time we acknowledged it, in training, in science, and in culture. References Rodríguez-Zamora L, Engan HK, Lodin-Sundström A, Schagatay F. Blood lactate accumulation during competitive freediving and synchronized swimming. Undersea Hyperb Med. 2018Drviš I, Vrdoljak D, Dujić G, Foretić N, Dujić Ž. Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism During Monofin Swimming in Trained Breath-Hold Divers. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2025Vrdoljak D, Dujić Ž, Foretić N. Muscular Oxygen Saturation and Hemoglobin Concentration during Freediving: A Case Study. Oxygen. 2024Huang T, et al. Novel insights into athlete physical recovery concerning lactate metabolism, lactate clearance and fatigue monitoring. PMC. 2025IJREP. Effects of Various Recovery Modalities on Lactate Clearance and Subsequent Exercise Performance. Int J of Reha and E-P, 2021
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16/09/2025
Why Freedivers Must Demand Sustainability
When you hold your breath and descend, there are no advertisements, no brand slogans, no clever marketing tricks. There is only water pressing against your chest and the fragile beauty of life around you. For freedivers, the experience is pure. Yet purity does not survive if the tools we carry into the water, the fins, wetsuits, masks, and snorkels, are made in ways that damage the very world we enter. We live in a moment of crisis. Climate change is accelerating. Plastics choke marine life. Coral reefs collapse under heat. Fish stocks decline. This is no longer a problem for scientists or policymakers alone. It is now personal. Each time a freediver pushes into the blue, the state of the planet comes into focus. If we care for that world, then we must demand that the companies supplying our equipment care for it too. The power of change lies with customers. It lies with you, with me, with every diver, surfer, runner, hiker, and swimmer who spends money and makes choices. When people demand more, when customers refuse to settle for half promises and shallow green marketing, companies must follow. This is not only a dream. The data is already clear. Across the globe, consumers are shifting, asking for more responsible products, rewarding brands that act, punishing those that do not. Freedivers, because of our unique intimacy with the sea, must be at the forefront of this demand. The Global Rise of Consumer Pressure Surveys show that sustainability has become a global priority. A study by PwC in 2024 revealed that 85% of consumers say they already feel the effects of climate change in daily life. The same research found they are willing to pay almost 10 percent more for goods that are made sustainably. This is not a small margin. It represents billions of dollars of market power. Another global report shows that 72% of consumers worldwide are ready to pay more for sustainable products. The number is even higher among younger generations. People under 35 often treat sustainability as a basic requirement, not a luxury. These shifts matter. Markets move when customers move. Yet barriers remain. Consumers are often confused by unclear labels. Many products are marketed with vague promises of being green or eco friendly, words that sound good but mean little without evidence. Price is another factor. Even if people want to buy sustainable goods, higher costs can make that difficult. Availability also limits choices. In some regions sustainable alternatives simply do not exist. The message here is simple. The demand is rising, but for it to truly reshape industries, customers must be relentless. They must not stop at words. They must insist on proof, on transparency, on honesty. What Freedivers Should Demand For freedivers, sustainability is not abstract. It is visible on every dive. We see plastic bags floating in currents, microplastic glinting in the sun, fishing nets abandoned on reefs. We notice coral turning white and fish populations thinning. We feel water warmer than it should be. For this reason, freedivers should be the sharpest voices demanding sustainable equipment. Transparency should be the first demand. Companies must reveal where materials come from, how they are processed, what energy powers their factories, what waste streams are created, and where it all ends up. Without transparency there can be no trust. Durability should be the next demand. Freediving gear is expensive. It should also be long lasting. A fin that breaks after two seasons is not only a financial burden. It is a waste of materials, energy, and shipping. Companies should design for repair, not disposal. Spare parts should be available. Blades should be replaceable. Wetsuits should be patchable. Customers must demand that longevity becomes the standard. Manufacturing and logistics must also be addressed. Energy use, emissions, and transportation are all part of the product footprint. Brands that power factories with renewable energy, optimize shipping, and reduce waste must be supported. Those that do not should be pressed to change. End of life responsibility is essential. What happens when a fin can no longer be used, when a wetsuit wears thin, when a mask strap finally tears? Too often the answer is landfill. This is unacceptable. Customers should demand take back programs, recycling schemes, or partnerships with organizations that repurpose gear. Finally, customers must demand honesty. Greenwashing is common in every industry, including outdoor sports. Words like eco or sustainable are used freely without evidence. Customers must ask for certifications, third party audits, and measurable goals. Brands that hide behind vague marketing should be called out. The Barriers to Action It is important to be honest about the challenges. Asking for sustainability is not simple. Cost is real. Sustainable materials can cost more. For a freediver already investing in carbon fins or custom wetsuits, adding extra cost can feel impossible. The solution is not to accept cheaper, destructive products, but to demand that companies absorb some of the costs themselves, invest in efficiency, and scale solutions so they become affordable. Information is often hidden. Many brands do not share enough data. Customers must dig, ask, and push. Communities can help. Freedivers share knowledge in forums, on boats, in classes. This collective voice can fill the information gap. Performance concerns are also real. Freediving gear must be safe, efficient, and comfortable. If sustainability sacrifices performance, freedivers may hesitate. But innovation is proving these fears wrong. Brands are showing that recycled plastics, natural rubbers, and renewable energy production can still deliver world class gear. Customers must insist on both performance and sustainability, not one at the expense of the other. Why Freedivers Must Lead Freedivers are closer to the ocean than almost any other community. Surfers ride the surface, divers descend with tanks, but freedivers place their bodies at the edge of human capacity with nothing but a breath. That intimacy with the sea comes with responsibility. Freedivers already invest heavily in equipment. Unlike casual snorkelers, freedivers often buy high-end carbon fins, precision masks, and custom wetsuits. That investment means freedivers have leverage. They can demand better and pay for it. Freedivers are a community built on sharing. We train together, travel together, post together. When one freediver champions a sustainable brand, others listen. When one freediver exposes a dishonest company, word spreads. This amplifies our collective voice. Most of all, freedivers witness fragility. We see reefs bleach, fish vanish, temperatures rise. We feel ecosystems shift. This direct experience should make us stronger advocates. When freedivers demand sustainability, it is not only as consumers. It is as guardians of what we love. Evidence of Change When Customers Demand More History shows that when consumers push, companies respond. In the outdoor industry, customer pressure has already led to major changes. Brands now use recycled polyester, organic cotton, and natural rubber where they once used only petroleum based materials. Companies publish annual sustainability reports. Many invest in repair programs. Some experiment with circular business models, where gear is refurbished and resold rather than discarded. What Could Change if Freedivers Demand More If freedivers take this seriously, the industry could transform. Imagine gear that is entirely recyclable, fins built with reclaimed ocean plastics that still deliver precision thrust, wetsuits with natural rubber that stretch and insulate without harming ecosystems, packaging that is minimal and compostable. Imagine companies openly publishing carbon footprints, showing exactly how much energy was used, what emissions were created, and what actions are being taken to reduce them. Imagine take back programs where old fins are returned, broken down, and remade into new ones. Imagine freediving schools teaching not only equalization and safety, but also environmental responsibility, showing students how their gear is made and how to choose wisely. These changes are not fantasy. They are possible if demand is strong enough. But companies will not move without pressure. That pressure must come from us. What Customers Can Do Now There is no need to wait for perfection. Every freediver can start now. Ask questions of brands. Support the ones that are already trying. Refuse those that are not. Repair gear rather than replacing it quickly. Share information with other divers. Use your voice. Email a brand and ask where their materials come from. Post on social media about sustainability in freediving. Choose gear that aligns with your values. When traveling, support dive shops and schools that care for the environment. Every action matters. Every purchase is a vote. When enough votes are cast for sustainability, the market shifts. Addressing the Objections Some say individual action is too small. That is not true. Individual action scales into community action. Communities create cultural pressure. Cultural pressure shapes industries. Some say sustainable gear is too expensive. Costs are falling as demand grows. And the real cost of unsustainable gear is paid elsewhere, in damaged reefs, in polluted waters, in lost ecosystems. Some say performance suffers. Innovation is already proving otherwise. Brands that invest in research are finding ways to meet both goals. Customers should not accept the false choice between sustainability and performance. A Future Worth Demanding The freediving world could become a model for sustainability. A community deeply connected to the sea, demanding that every product reflect that connection. A market where gear lasts longer, pollutes less, and gives back more. An industry where transparency is a given, where greenwashing is exposed, where honesty prevails. This is the vision. Freedivers must demand it. Customers must demand it. Change will not come from silence. It will come from insistence, from persistence, from the pressure of people who care. The ocean gives us silence. Let us return the favor by demanding that our gear protects that silence, not destroys it. References PwC. Voice of the Consumer Survey 2024. 85 percent of consumers say they already feel the effects of climate change in daily life. Consumers are willing to pay 9.7 percent more for sustainable goods Arbor.eco. Sustainability Statistics 2025. 72 percent of global consumers are willing to pay more for sustainable products PlasticBank. How Consumer Demand is Fueling the Sustainability Shift. Consumers are pushing companies to act on sustainability Endvr.io. Sustainable Gear is Taking Over Outdoor Retail. Outdoor brands are responding to consumer demands by adopting sustainable manufacturing and transparent supply chains The Roundup. Environmentally Conscious Consumer Statistics. Summary of trends in consumer sustainability behavior Travelperk. Business Sustainability Statistics. Data on global consumer attitudes toward recycling, reducing plastic, and climate action
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15/09/2025
How A Sports Nutritionist Helps You Be Your Best
We often think of sports nutritionists as people who work only with elite athletes, tweaking diets to shave seconds off race times or to boost muscle mass. But the truth is that many of the same principles apply to anyone who moves, trains, or simply wants to live better. Whether you are an aspiring competitive athlete or someone going for regular exercise and a healthy lifestyle, a good sports nutritionist can offer tools, strategies, and insight that uplift performance, health, mental well-being, recovery, longevity, and much more. The Role of a Sports Nutritionist A sports nutritionist, or sports dietitian if licensed, is someone who understands how food, fluids, and supplements affect the body’s ability to train, adapt, recover, resist illness, and perform. They assess individual needs, including body composition, training load, health status, and goals. They also focus on timing of nutrition before, during, and after training or competition, energy intake relative to demands, macro and micronutrient balance, hydration, supplement use, and the behavioral and psychological aspects of eating. Their work is not just about optimizing what you eat for sport but about making nutrition sustainable, safe, enjoyable, and aligned with your life. Why Nutrition Matters for Athletes For athletes, whether amateur or elite, several areas are especially impacted by good sports nutrition. Energy availability and fueling are fundamental. If you do not provide enough calories relative to what you burn, performance suffers. You fatigue earlier, recovery is slower, and the risk of injury rises. Research shows that appropriate dietary intake improves both health and sport performance, and that eating behavior is shaped by how one eats over training cycles. Recovery and adaptation are another focus. After workouts or competitions the body needs to repair, refuel, and rebuild. Protein intake, carbohydrate timing, rest, and hydration all influence how quickly you bounce back, reduce muscle soreness, and get stronger or more enduring. Nutrient timing matters as well. When you eat relative to training or competition is crucial. Before training you may need carbohydrates to fuel, afterward protein and carbs to rebuild. Even non-elite athletes often experience energy dips if timing is poor. Hydration is also essential. Dehydration, even mild, can reduce both physical and cognitive performance, increasing risk of cramps, injuries, and overheating. Sports nutritionists help plan hydration strategies suited to climate, training intensity, and individual sweat rates. They also help prevent injury, illness, and burnout. Under-fueling, inadequate micronutrients such as iron, calcium, and vitamin D, and poor recovery can all increase risk. Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport, a condition caused by low energy availability, has hormonal, metabolic, bone, immune, and psychological consequences, and a sports nutritionist can prevent or correct it. Finally, they guide supplementation and safety. Many athletes think first about supplements, but not all are useful or safe. A nutritionist helps decide which, if any, are appropriate, safe, legal, and effective. Why Nutrition Matters for Everyday People For non-athletes, the benefits are equally powerful. Even if you are not competing, life demands energy, resilience, good health, and balance. Nutrition expertise translates into all of these. What you eat affects blood sugar, nutrient supply to the brain, inflammation, and sleep, all of which shape mood, focus, and stress resilience. Stable energy from balanced nutrition leads to productivity, clearer reasoning, and better stress handling. Improved body composition and metabolic health are other benefits. Many people want to lose fat, gain strength, maintain lean mass, or avoid metabolic disease. Nutritionists tailor diets to calorie needs and lifestyle, support strength training, ensure protein and micronutrients maintain muscle and bone, and reduce risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Proper nutrition also aids recovery, reduces soreness, and prevents injuries even in daily activities. It helps in recovery from illness or surgery. Longer term, it prevents chronic diseases such as heart disease, some cancers, osteoporosis, and metabolic syndrome. Adequate micronutrients, balanced macronutrients, and management of inflammation are all part of this. Nutrition impacts mental health as well. Poor nutrition can worsen anxiety, depression, and fatigue, while adequate protein, omega-3s, micronutrients, and hydration contribute to better sleep, mood, and resilience. What Research Reveals Research reveals significant gaps in knowledge that nutritionists help fill. A recent cross-sectional study in Riyadh compared athletes and physically active individuals and found that about 77% overall had poor nutritional knowledge, with athletes scoring only slightly better. There were major deficiencies in understanding protein, hydration, supplements, and macronutrient requirements before, during, and after training. Another study on nutritional priorities of athletes and active individuals found that although post-exercise recovery was often a top priority, actual practices fell short of scientific best practices. Many participants chose supplement-based solutions over food-based ones, which often carry fewer risks and greater long-term benefits. A conceptual paper emphasized that sport nutrition approaches must integrate behavior change, education, and individual variability, not only calorie and macronutrient guidelines. These findings highlight why a sports nutritionist can make such a difference. How a Nutritionist Adds Value Practically, they add value through personalized assessments of weight, body composition, and sometimes blood panels. They design customized fuel and timing plans, help schedule meals around workouts or daily life, and ensure energy needs are met. They also provide behavioral and psychological support, since changing eating habits is difficult. They help set goals, deal with cravings, and develop consistent habits. They adapt plans for special circumstances such as medical conditions, dietary preferences, or travel. They monitor and refine as life and training change. This guidance also helps avoid pitfalls. Common mistakes include over-reliance on supplements, following fad diets, believing misinformation from unverified sources, or making drastic sudden changes that fail. Sports nutritionists integrate recovery, sleep, and stress into the nutrition picture, avoiding a narrow focus on food alone. Case Studies in Everyday Life Consider two hypothetical individuals. Helen trains for long-distance running and hopes to qualify for a local competition. Nick goes to the gym several times a week to stay fit and energetic, without competitive ambitions. For Helen, a sports nutritionist ensures adequate energy intake for her mileage, carbohydrate strategies to avoid hitting the wall, recovery between runs, attention to iron and vitamin D, and hydration in heat. Over weeks, she improves performance and reduces injury risk. For Nick, the nutritionist focuses on protein intake for muscle maintenance, caloric balance for body fat reduction, and optimizing pre- and post-workout meals for better energy and sleep. Both benefit beyond sport, with more energy for work and family, stronger immunity, better mood, and sustainable habits. Nutrition Beyond the Podium Long term, the impacts extend beyond performance. Better nutrition reduces chronic disease risk, supports healthy body composition with age, reduces osteoporosis risk, and maintains mobility. It improves sleep, cognitive performance, and mood stability. Psychological benefits also emerge. Feeling competent in self-care, having predictable energy, and less anxiety about food build confidence. The structure and intentionality of training and diet often spill into other life areas, improving discipline, self-respect, decision-making, and resilience. Where More Research Is Needed While the evidence is strong, more research is needed. Individual variability in genetics or microbiome may affect responses to nutrition, and more long-term studies in non-elite populations could clarify impacts on disease and longevity. More randomized trials comparing food-first and supplement-heavy approaches would be useful, and more work is needed on psychological interventions that improve adherence. Working Effectively with a Nutritionist To work effectively with a sports nutritionist, one should choose a credentialed professional, be honest about lifestyle and preferences, set realistic goals, and use tracking tools for feedback. Patience and willingness to adjust are key, and the focus should be on building lasting habits rather than short-term gains. A sports nutritionist offers more than dietary advice for competition. For athletes they optimize performance, recovery, and reduce injury risk. For non-athletes they enable sustained energy, better health, improved mood, disease prevention, and more fulfilling lives. The science shows that gaps in knowledge, poor fueling, and inadequate hydration are common even among those who train regularly. Personalized, evidence-based guidance can bridge those gaps. When sport is viewed as a metaphor for life, what matters most is the capacity to show up, recover, feel good, contribute, and keep growing. Good nutrition is one of the foundations for that. References Alahmadi AK, Albassam RS. Assessment of General and Sports Nutrition Knowledge, Dietary Habits, and Nutrient Intake of Physical Activity Practitioners and Athletes in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Nutrients. 2023Carey C, Cooke M, et al. Nutritional priorities, practices and preferences of athletes and active individuals. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2023Gibbs RL et al. General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge among adolescent athletes vs non-athletes. 2025Iwasa-Madge et al. A Proposed Conceptual Sport Nutrition Approach. 2022Mass General Brigham. Sports and Nutrition: What Athletes Need to Know. 2024University of Idaho. Enhancing Athletic Performance: The Science Behind Sport Nutrition
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15/09/2025
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